This table is a summary from the report Interventions for children on the autism spectrum: A synthesis of research evidence. The information in the table summarises the results of the review, including intervention effects and the quality of evidence on which they are based.
Reading the results of the table below
- Each cell represents evidence for the intervention category or practice (horizontal rows) on various child and family outcomes (vertical columns).
- The effect of these interventions on a range of child and family outcomes is summarised as positive, null, or mixed.
means that all available evidence indicated a positive effect of the intervention on a given child or family outcome.
means that there was a mixture of positive and null effects reported for the intervention on a given child or family outcome.
means that all available evidence indicated a null effect of the intervention on a given child or family outcome.
- H / M / L indicates the methodological quality of the evidence that contributed to the overall intervention effect for a given child or family outcome. The quality of evidence on which these findings are based is summarised as high, moderate, or low. These quality ratings are relative to those that met the minimum standards to be included in the report. Where there is more than one quality rating, it means more than one systematic review is represented.
- H indicates evidence from a high quality review
- M indicates evidence from a moderate quality review
- L indicates evidence from a low quality review
- Where a cell is empty, it means there was no evidence available from the systematic reviews included in the report.
Please refer to the full report for a detailed explanation of the process used to collect, summarise, and synthesise the evidence presented here.
Summary of evidence table
Core autism characteristics | Related skills and development | Education and participation | Family wellbeing | |||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Interventions | No. of systematic reviews | Overall autistic characteristics | Social-communication | Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours | Sensory behaviours | Communication | Expressive language | Receptive language | Cognition | Motor | Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour | Play | Adaptive behaviour | General outcomes | School/ learning readiness | Academic skills | Quality of life | Community participation | Caregiver communication and interaction strategies | Caregiver social emotional wellbeing | Caregiver satisfaction | Caregiver financial wellbeing | Child satisfaction | |
Behavioural | Systematic reviews of assorted behavioural practices* | 3 | M | M | L | L | M | M | M | M | L | M | L | L | ||||||||||
Discrete Trial Training | 1 | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | |||||||||||||||
Early intensive behavioural intervention | 4 | M | M | M | M | M | M | L | M | L | L M | L | M | |||||||||||
Functional Communication training | 2 | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | ||||||||||||||||
Language Training (production) | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Language Training (production and understanding) | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) | 2 | L | L | L | ||||||||||||||||||||
Developmental | Systematic reviews of assorted developmental interventions* | 2 | M | M | H | |||||||||||||||||||
Developmental relationship-based treatment | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
DIR/Floortime | 2 | M | M | M | L | |||||||||||||||||||
Naturalistic teaching strategies | 2 | L L | L L | L | L | L | L | L | L L | L | ||||||||||||||
Naturalistic developmental behaviourial interventions | Systematic reviews of assorted NDBIs* | 2 | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | ||||||||||||
Early Start Denver Model | 2 | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | M | |||||||||||||
Pivotal Response Treatment | 3 | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | |||||||||||||||
Sensory-based interventions | Systematic reviews of assorted sensory-based interventions* | 3 | M | L L | ||||||||||||||||||||
Auditory integration Therapy | 3 | M | L L | |||||||||||||||||||||
Ayers Sensory Integration (ASI) | 4 | L | L L | L M | L L | L | L M | L | L | L L | M | L | L | |||||||||||
Environmental enrichment | 1 | M | M | |||||||||||||||||||||
Music therapy | 4 | M | M | L | L | L | L L | L | L | M | M | |||||||||||||
Sensory diet | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
TEACCH | Systematic review of TEACCH* | 1 | M | |||||||||||||||||||||
Structured teaching | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Technology-based interventions | Systematic reviews of assorted technology-based interventions* | 5 | M | L | L | L | M | L | L | L L | L | L | M | |||||||||||
Apps | 2 | H | H | H | H | H | H | |||||||||||||||||
Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) | 3 | L M | L | L | L | L | L | L | M | |||||||||||||||
Computer-based instruction | 2 | L | L | |||||||||||||||||||||
Facilitated communication | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Robots | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Sign instruction | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Animal-assisted interventions | Systematic reviews of assorted animal-assisted interventions* | 2 | L L | |||||||||||||||||||||
Canine-assisted intervention | 2 | L M | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Equine assisted therapy | 3 | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L M | L | L | |||||||||||||
Cognitive behaviour therapy | Systematic reviews of cognitive behavioural therapy | 4 | M | L | L | L | L | L L | L L | L L | L | |||||||||||||
Exposure package | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Other interventions | Imitation based training | 1 | L | |||||||||||||||||||||
Multi-component package | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Reductive package | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Social behavioural learning strategy | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Social cognition intervention | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Social communication intervention | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Social skills training | 1 | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | ||||||||||||||||
Social thinking intervention | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Theory of Mind training | 1 | L | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Behavioural
Systematic reviews of assorted behavioural practices*
No. of systematic reviews: 3
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Sensory behaviours: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Discrete Trial Training
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Early intensive behavioural intervention
No. of systematic reviews: 4
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Receptive language: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review, 1 moderate quality review)
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Functional Communication training
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Language Training (production)
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Language Training (production and understanding)
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS)
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Developmental
Systematic reviews of assorted developmental interventions*
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 high quality review)
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Developmental relationship-based treatment
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
DIR/Floortime
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Naturalistic teaching strategies
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Naturalistic developmental behaviourial interventions
Systematic reviews of assorted NDBIs*
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Receptive language: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Early Start Denver Model
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Social-communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
General outcomes: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Caregiver satisfaction: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Pivotal Response Treatment
No. of systematic reviews: 3
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Sensory-based interventions
Systematic reviews of assorted sensory-based interventions*
No. of systematic reviews: 3
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Null effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Auditory integration Therapy
No. of systematic reviews: 3
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Null effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Ayers Sensory Integration (ASI)
No. of systematic reviews: 4
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Social-communication: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review, 1 moderate quality review)
Related skills and development
Communication: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review, 1 moderate quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Play: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Environmental enrichment
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Music therapy
No. of systematic reviews: 4
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Sensory diet
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
TEACCH
Systematic review of TEACCH*
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Structured teaching
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Technology-based interventions
Systematic reviews of assorted technology-based interventions*
No. of systematic reviews: 5
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Null effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Apps
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 high quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 high quality review)
Expressive language: Null effect (Evidence from 1 high quality review)
Receptive language: Null effect (Evidence from 1 high quality review)
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 high quality review)
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 high quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)
No. of systematic reviews: 3
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review, 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Play: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Computer-based instruction
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Facilitated communication
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Robots
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Sign instruction
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Animal-assisted interventions
Systematic reviews of assorted animal-assisted interventions*
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Null effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Canine-assisted intervention
No. of systematic reviews: 2
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review, 1 moderate quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Equine assisted therapy
No. of systematic reviews: 3
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Related skills and development
Communication: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Motor: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: Null effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review, 1 moderate quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Community participation: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Cognitive behaviour therapy
Systematic reviews of cognitive behavioural therapy
No. of systematic reviews: 4
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 moderate quality review)
Social-communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Related skills and development
Communication: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: Positive effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
General outcomes: No evidence available
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: Positive effect (Evidence from 2 low quality reviews)
Academic skills: Positive effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Exposure package
No. of systematic reviews: 1
Core autism characteristics
Overall autistic characteristics: No evidence available
Social-communication: No evidence available
Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours: No evidence available
Sensory behaviours: No evidence available
Related skills and development
Communication: No evidence available
Expressive language: No evidence available
Receptive language: No evidence available
Cognition: No evidence available
Motor: No evidence available
Social-emotional/ challenging behaviour: No evidence available
Play: No evidence available
Adaptive behaviour: No evidence available
General outcomes: Inconsistent effect (Evidence from 1 low quality review)
Education and participation
School/ learning readiness: No evidence available
Academic skills: No evidence available
Quality of life: No evidence available
Community participation: No evidence available
Family wellbeing
Caregiver communication and interaction strategies: No evidence available
Caregiver social emotional wellbeing: No evidence available
Caregiver satisfaction: No evidence available
Caregiver financial wellbeing: No evidence available
Child satisfaction: No evidence available
Combined practices for each category
Behavioural
Behavioral Parent Training; Behavioural early intervention programmes; Discrete Trial Training with Motor Vocal Imitation Assessment; Early Intensive Behavioral Treatment; Functional Behavior Skills Training Home-based behavioral treatment; Home-based Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI); Intensive ABA; Intensive Early Intervention; Low Intensity Behavioral Treatment; Managing Repetitive Behaviors; Peer-Mediated Intervention; Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS); Rapid Motor Imitation Antecedent; Regular Intensive Learning for Young Children with Autism; Schedules, Tools, and Activities for Transitions (STAT); Social Skills Group; Stepping Stones Triple P Positive Parenting Program; Strategies for Teaching Based on Autism Research (STAR).
Developmental
Child Talk; Developmental Individual-Difference Relationship-Based (DIR)/Floortime; Hanen More Than Words; Joint Attention Mediated Learning (JAML); Milton and Ethel Harris Research Initiative Treatment (MEHRIT)-DIR based; Parent-Mediated Communication Focused Treatment; Parent-mediated intervention for autism spectrum disorder in South Asia (PASS); Pediatric Autism and Communication Therapy (PACT); Play and Language for Autistic Youngsters (PLAY) project - DIR based; Scottish Early Intervention Program; Social Communication Intervention for Children with Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorder; Social communication, emotion regulation, transactional support (SCERTS); Video-feedback Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting adapted to autism (VIPP-AUTI).
Cognitive behaviour therapy
Building Confidence Family Cognitive behaviour therapy (FCBT); Cool Kids; Coping Cat CBT program; Facing your fears; Group Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT); Social Skills Training for Children and Adolescents with Asperger Syndrome and Social-Communications Problems; Thinking about you, thinking about me.
Naturalistic developmental behavioural interventions
Advancing Social-Communication and Play (ASAP); Caregiver-based intervention program in community day-care centers; Denver Model; Early Social Interaction Project (ESI); Early Social Interaction Project (SCERTS); Early Start Denver Model (ESDM); Focus parent training program; Home-based Building Blocks Program; ImPACT Online; Interpersonal Synchrony; Joint Attention, Symbolic Play, Engagement, and Regulation (JASPER); Joint Engagement Intervention with Creative Movement Therapy; Joint Engagement Intervention; Learning Experiences Alternative Program (LEAP); Parent-Early Start Denver Model (P-ESDM); Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT); Reciprocal Imitation Training (RIT); Social ABCs.
Sensory-based
Alternative seating; Blanket or “body sock”; Brushing with a bristle or a feather; Chewing on a rubber tube; Developmental Speech and Language Training through Music; Family-Centered Music Therapy; Joint compression or stretching; Jumping or bouncing; Music Therapy; Playing with a water and sand sensory table; Playing with specially textured toys; Qigong (QST) Massage Treatment; Rhythm Intervention Sensorimotor Enrichment; Sensory Enrichment; Swinging or rocking stimulation; Thai Traditional Massage; Tomatis Sound Therapy; Weighted vests.
Technology-based
ABRACADABRA; Apps; Computer-based interventions; FaceSay; Gaming Open Library for Intervention in Autism at Home (GOLIAH); Gaze-contingent attention training; Robot-based interventions; Serious games; Social Skills Training using a robotic behavioral intervention system; The Transporters animated series; Therapy Outcomes By You (TOBY) App; Transporters DVD; Transporters Program for Children with Autism; Videoconferencing; Virtual environment with playable games; Web-based cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) intervention.
Animal-assisted
Not specified
TEACCH
Not specified